Japan’s Laboratory of Democracy
How Japan’s Democracy Grew Stronger than America’s
This essay from Civic Way’s global democracy series was co-written by Bob Melville and Will Arrington. Bob is the founder of Civic Way, a nonprofit dedicated to good government, and a management consultant with over 45 years of experience. Will is an advisor to Civic Way with a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Will, a former Peace Corps volunteer, works in Washington DC.
Civic Way’s Comparative Democracy Series
The world’s democracies vary widely. Some have strong central governments, some federated structures. Some have an independent president and some a parliamentary form. Some retain vestiges of a ceremonial monarchy. Some democracies have deep cultural or historical roots. Some spring from pivotal historic events. Most evidence their commitment to democracy through a formal constitution.
All democracies face comparable challenges. To overcome such foreseeable trials, many nations refine their constitutions, laws and norms. Learning about these changes, and the risks they were meant to abate, can help us strengthen our own democracy. And, in the case of autocracies disguised as democracies, we can learn what to avoid.
The Japanese Miracle
Japan’s nearly 124 million people live on an island archipelago comprising nearly 146,000 square miles (about the size of California). With its proximity to China, Russia and the Korean peninsula, its location is strategic. But the most remarkable thing about Japan is its post-World War II recovery.
From 1869 to 1927, Japan was a constitutional monarchy, with an ineffectual parliament. The Japanese emperor, revered as a living god, possessed absolute power including final say over legislation. During the Great Depression, militant nationalists gained control of the government, eventually inciting an invasion of China and the start of WWII.
After its unconditional surrender in 1945, Japan was occupied by a provisional Allied military government. Under General MacArthur, the Allies instituted sweeping reforms (including new civil liberties and female suffrage). In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution that stripped the emperor’s powers, dissolved non-defensive military forces and installed a parliamentary democracy. In 1952, the Allied occupation ended.
From 1952 to the 1990s, Japan emerged from the ashes. It built a highly diversified economy. Its GDP growth averaged over 5 percent per year. Japanese products, particularly cars, won new customers worldwide. Japanese cultural offerings like manga and Kaiju (monster movies) won legions of new fans.
Japan is not immune to challenges. It encountered a severe economic downturn during the 1990s (the Lost Years). Today, it faces stagnant wage growth, a shrinking workforce and excessive fossil fuel dependence. It’s ethnic homogeneity and low fertility rates could portend future difficulties[i].
Still, it cannot be denied that Japan has become a global leader. It has a five trillion-dollar GDP and the world’s 4thlargest economy[ii]. It is a steadfast supporter of Western hegemony and vital ally of the US. Its culture is admired by many. And it has a thriving democracy, arguably healthier than that of the nation that was so important to Japan’s rebirth after WWII—the United States.
Japan’s Government
Japan’s has a parliamentary democracy with three distinct branches, as set forth in its Constitution:
Executive branch – The prime minister serves as the head of government and, by tradition, the ruling political party. The prime minister appoints and supervises the cabinet (ministers) and may dismiss cabinet ministers and dissolve the House of Representatives at will. The emperor, as head of state, has ceremonial powers.
Legislative branch – The National Diet, Japan’s bicameral parliament, passes all laws (subject to the Prime Minister’s approval). The upper house, the House of Councilors, has 248 seats and the more powerful lower house, the House of Representatives, has 465 seats.
Judicial branch – There are five courts, the Supreme Court and four lower courts—the High, District, Family and Summary courts. The Supreme Court, with 14 justices, is Japan’s highest court with judicial review power (exercised only eight times since 1952).
Japan is a unitary state with 47 administrative divisions or prefectures—one metropolitan district (Tokyo), two urban prefectures (Kyoto and Osaka), 43 rural prefectures, and one district (Hokkaidō). Large cities are subdivided into wards and smaller entities (e.g., subprefectures, counties and villages). While large cities are deemed self-governing, it is not unusual for national ministries like the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications to become involved in local affairs.
Japan’s Democracy
Japan’s strong democracy is a source of national pride as well as a significant contributor to the country’s stability and international influence. Japan ranks quite high on global democracy rankings, much higher than the US, the nation that helped design Japan’s democracy.
In 2022, the Economist’s Intelligence Unit awarded Japan a Democracy Index (DI) score of 8.33 and ranked it the world’s 16th strongest democracy. As a full democracy, with relatively high scores in such categories as electoral process, civil liberties, political culture and governance. Japan’s DI score has been very stable since the DI rankings began in 2006.
Freedom House gave Japan a 96 score (out of 100) in 2022, classifying it as a fully free democracy. It gave Japan a perfect score for political rights (40/40) and a lofty score for civil liberties (56/60). Japan has consistently garnered high scores for such categories over the years.
Some of the more notable features of Japan’s democracy include:
Voting – Voting is non-compulsory. The voting age was recently lowered from 20 to 18 for all adults. Japanese citizens living abroad may vote, but only in person at an embassy or consulate.
Elections – National and local elections, most of which occur every four years[i], are widely considered free, fair and trustworthy.
Campaign financing – Japanese campaign financing laws are relatively strict. The government allocates about $300 million to political parties based on their proportional representation in the Diet. Any excess campaign costs are paid by the political party or candidate.
Executive branch – The prime minister, upon being selected by the National Diet and formally appointed by the emperor, serves a term of no more than four years.
Legislative branch – The House of Councilors serve six-year terms, but elections are staggered (half are elected every three years). The House of Representatives serve four-year terms and elections are held every four years.
Legislative representation – In the 248-seat House of Councilors, 146 members serve multi-seat districts and 96 serve single-seat districts. In the 465-seat House of Representatives, 289 members serve single-seat districts and 176 multi-member districts. Legislators serving multi-member districts are elected through a party-list proportional representation system[ii].
Judicial branch – The judiciary’s independence is constitutionally guaranteed. The cabinet nominates and appoints judges, including the 14 Supreme Court justices,[iii] but judges cannot be removed arbitrarily thereafter.
Term limits – The prime minister, House of Councilors and House of Representatives do not have term limits. Supreme Court justices must retire at the age of 70.
Removal process – The House of Representatives may pass a no-confidence resolution to force the cabinet’s resignation. The prime minister and cabinet can dissolve the lower house at will, but not the upper house. The emperor cannot be removed. Supreme Court justices may be dismissed by voters after their appointment and judges are subject to impeachment, but removal is rare[iv].
Japan’s political pluralism is superficial. While it has several political parties, one political party—the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)—has dominated the government since 1955, outrightly or by coalition[v]. The LDP holds 112 seats in the House of Councilors, and 261 in the House of Representatives. The liberal Constitutional Democratic Party (CDP), the main opposition party, holds 39 seats in the House of Councilors and 96 in the House of Representatives. Smaller parties, like the Japan Innovation and Komeito parties, hold fewer seats but may serve as coalition partners[vi].
While political parties reportedly are allowed to operate without burdensome restrictions, the LDP has employed legislative districting schemes to maintain its hold on power. The LDP has repeatedly packed rural districts—reliable LDP supporters—with more seats than their populations would dictate. In late 2022, in response to a Supreme Court ruling, the Diet adopted a new map that transferred ten seats from overrepresented rural single-seat districts to underrepresented urban districts.
Japan’s electoral laws are considered fair, and the rules appear well enforced not only by the government but by the media. Campaigns are heavily regulated. Political scandals, when they occur, receive hard-hitting media coverage. Accused politicians often face criminal prosecution.
Japan’s Recent Political Landscape
The ruling LDP, which has only lost power twice in the last 71 years, has shown remarkable flexibility and resilience. It is conservative but notably less rigid and radical than many Western conservative or right-wing parties. With its overarching focus on economic development, it has shown a willingness to work with a broad array of competing interests, including big business and labor.
The LDP controls the National Diet. In October 2021, it won 259 seats (55 percent) in the House of Representatives (its coalition partner, the Komeito party, won another 32 seats). The CDP, the main opposition party, won only 96 seats. After the July 2019 election, the LDP coalition held about 57 percent of the seats in the House of Councilors, a secure majority.
Another interesting feature of Japanese politics is the short tenure of most prime ministers. During its history, Japan has had 63 past prime ministers, of which 57 served less than 5 years and 20 served less than a year. Shinzo Abe, who served over eight years, was the nation’s longest-serving prime minister. The impact of such turnover on governance does not appear well understood.
After Abe’s resignation in 2020, he was succeeded by Yoshihide Suga. Just over one year later, in September 2021, Suga announced that he would not stand for reelection. The LDP quickly chose Fumio Kishida as its new leader, and the Diet confirmed him as prime minister. In October 2021, the LDP retained its majority in the House of Representatives and Kishida was retained as prime minister.
Possible Lessons for the US
Ironically, given our involvement in designing Japan’s democracy, we have much to learn from it. There are several issues of interest, including the following:
Voting – After plummeting to a historic low of 52 percent (from 69 percent in 2009), the voter turnout rate for the House of Representatives election recovered somewhat to 56 percent in 2021.
Elections – Several factors, including judicial oversight, media coverage and the political culture, have contributed to the strong public faith in Japan’s national elections.
Campaign financing – Partial public financing for campaigns could be a contributing factor to the nation’s relatively civil brand of politics.
Legislative branch – The mix of multi-district and single-district legislative seats, coupled with continued Supreme Court pressure, could help make the Diet more representative.
Legislative representation – The blended single-member district and proportional representation system has not yet fully mitigated the negative impacts of the LDP’s long-standing efforts to give outsized representation to rural districts.
Term limits – The mandatory retirement age for Supreme Court justices should contribute to relatively frequent turnover among justices.
Removal process – The post-appointment review election for Supreme Court justices provides at least some accountability regarding judicial conduct.
The LDP’s political domination has led many to view Japan as a one-party state. At the same time, politics appear far more civil in Japan than in the US (and some other Western nations). The LDP’s apparent willingness to occasionally put the common good over narrow dogma (and pragmatism over ideological fervor) has probably contributed to that civility.
Japan’s democracy faces other issues as well. Excessive corporate sway over government. The disappointing political underrepresentation of women[vii]. Discrimination against foreigners. An arduous naturalization process. Inadequate political representation for minorities (e.g., Japanese-born ethnic Korean residents).
Still, despite such challenges, Japan has one of the world’s most powerful democracies. It has made enormous strides from the totalitarian empire that destroyed so much, becoming a respected and valued partner of the free world. Its commitment to democratic values seems resolute.
We cannot perfect our union without perfecting our democracy. To do so, we must not only learn from our own successes and setbacks, but the feats and failures of other nations.
Japan is one such nation.